Stem Cell Research and Utilitarianism

Stem Cell Research and Utilitarianism Janelle Akomah What if there was an opportunity to develop a cure for diabetes, HIV, or cancer? However, in order to achieve such a task, research and manipulation of embryonic cells are required. One may question the viability of the cells and if the embryos or fetuses are regarded as human lives. Stem cell research advances the knowledge about how an organism develops from a single cell and how healthy cells replace damaged cells in adult organisms. This paper will focus on the support of stem cell research and its importance in the future of medicine. Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that and renew itself and differentiate to yield some or all major cell types of tissues or organs. The potential in regenerating or manipulating stem cells for future treatment of genetic conditions or chronic diseases is profound and is needed for treatment of medical conditions. Utilitarianism is the theory of justice that is supportive of stem cell research. The foundation of this theory is â€Å"the great est happiness† principle. The lives that can be saved are immeasurable. But what about the embryos and fetuses that are destroyed in the process? If embryos are considered lives, stem cell research can be essentially considered as murder. The primary objection that may apply is that utilitarianism makes no room for individual rights. Sacrificing the life of one to save millions may be worth it and this paper will state the major points of support for stem cell research. Stem Cell Research Controversy Stem cells are undifferentiated cells in tissue that serve as an internal repair system that divide to replenish other cells within the body. These cells are capable of renewing themselves through cell division and can divide and repair damaged or worn out tissue. Human embryonic stem cells are stem cells that are derived from human embryos. Stem cells are able to divide and renew themselves for a long period of time, unspecialized and can give rise to specialized cell types (US Department of Health and Human Services, 2009). Current research of stem cells includes controlling cell proliferation and differentiation through identification of how undifferentiated stem cells convert to differentiated cells that form the tissues and organs. Then controversy in stem cell research involves the creation, usage, and destruction of embryos. Creation of human embryo stem cell line requires destruction of the human embryo. At Harvard University, researchers attempted to transfer the nucleus of a somatic cell into an existing embryonic stem cell to create a new stem cell line. The ethical issue of manipulation and destruction of the human embryo and its stem cells center the debate on stem cell research. The pro-life movement is stemmed from the concern of the rights and status of the embryo as human life. Until recent years, stem cell research included removing tissue from an aborted embryo to get material to evaluate and study. Researchers are now reverting to obtain and manipulate pluripotent stem cells without th e use of embryos. In the past, ethical issues of scientific research on aborted fetuses did not justify medical benefits. Researchers began evaluating embryonic stem cells because they represent the earliest stage of later cell lineages and provide information on how development of tissues arise and treatments to cure or prevent chronic diseases (Robertson, 2010). Those against embryonic stem cell research believe that fertilized eggs used in the laboratory are human beings or individuals with rights, moral and legal statuses of fully born persons. These individuals view destruction of embryos as murder or a sacrifice of the weakest for the interest of others. Those that support stem cell research do not view embryos to have interests or rights and should not be protected at the cost of scientific research. They also do not believe that fetuses develop any neurological capacity to feel pain. Support of Stem Cell Research Stem cell research has the potential to save millions of lives and give a new start to those that may have been threatened by chronic and/or fatal conditions. The conditions considered for potential cures include spinal cord injuries, multiple sclerosis, diabetes, Parkinson’s disease, cancer and Alzheimer’s disease. The possibility of reversing the effects of aging and prolonging life is beneficial for those who are interested. It may also increase the quality of life among many individuals. It is difficult to determine if embryonic stem cells are considered human life. So why not research the early stages of human development to facilitate medical advances for mankind? If we can improve the quality of life for individuals with chronic conditions by exploring the use of embryonic stem cells, why not research them? There can be a comparison of stem cell research of embryonic stem cells to that of individuals in the military. People are recruited, trained, and deployed to protect the country from harm or terror. In the end, it is all done for the greater good and to save lives. In stem cell research, embryonic stem cells are researched by manipulation or destruction to develop a stem cell line or cure for many progressive and fatal chronic conditions. This research is done to provide a line of defense against diseases that are harmful to the human being. When we look at the two examples, although different approaches, the overall goal is to protect the human race. I look at stem cell research as a way to protect human life against many harmful invaders that decrease the overall quality of life and may cause death. Utilitarianism It is known as the â€Å"greatest happiness† principle and utilitarianism argues that justice is maximizing individuals’ happiness and minimizing pain. John Stuart Mill, an English philosopher, stated acts should be considered as morally right or wrong if the consequences are of significance that an individual would wish to act in a preferred manner (West, 2012). These actions support the greater good for the greatest number. Utilitarianism defines morality as the maximization of total net expectable utility for individuals affected by an action or decision. There were multiple philosophers of utilitarianism including John Stuart Mill and Jeremy Bentham. Both philosophers proposed this theory as a form of consequentialism which states that consequences are the ultimate basis for judgment about right or wrong conduct. Bentham stated that every moral argument should draw on the idea of maximizing happiness (Sandel, 2009, pg 32). He notes that the highest principle of mora lity is to maximize happiness and the overall balance of pleasure over pain. Bentham argued that every moral argument should draw on maximizing happiness (Sandel, 2009, pg 32). It is the foundation of moral and political life. When there is a choice to be made between actions, utilitarianism’s theory states that the choice with the greatest utility is the right choice. Utilitarianism can definitely be applied to the controversial issue of embryonic stem cell research. Research of embryonic stem cells is conducted to develop cures and treatments of chronic conditions for the greater good of the human race. When we look at the overall goal and purpose of stem cell research, we can determine it as a morally right consequence. This is determined because the research is conducted in search of a cure for diseases and a treatment course that will increase an individual’s quality of life thus increasing their overall happiness. The definition of justice can be considered as granting each person what they are morally due. Is it not fair to grant each individual a maximization of life and the most quality of life available? Stem cell research seeks to uphold that goal by looking for answers to a growing issue. Many people succumb to chronic conditions for various reasons. If cures or treatment plans that prolong the lifespan are developed, many lives will be saved and healthcare expenditures can decline. The costs for maintenance of diseases such as diabetes, heart failure, Alzheimer’s disease would decrease because if cured, there will be no need for maintenance. The Objection There is no room for individual rights when utilitarianism is in place. This theory explains justice as saving the most lives. If we look at stem cell research and utilitarianism, then this objection can apply. If embryos used in stem cell research are considered the beginning of human life, then we look at individual rights. There are none. The rights of the embryos that are manipulated and destroyed are not taken into account when looking at the overall purpose of stem cell research. The supporter of this objection states that everyone is created equally and no one individual is better or is worth more than another. There is question on how the individual is treated under the theory of utilitarianism. Non-supporters of utilitarianism state that each individual is counted as one on an equal basis; however, it fails to respect the integrity of each person (Seehy, 2002). The objection states that the overall function of the treatment of individuals contribute to the greater good which in turn reflects impartiality. How can the individual rights of embryos/fetuses be taken into account if they are manipulated and destroyed for the goal of researching a cure for a chronic condition? Is it fair to play God and pick and choose which embryo or fetus will be chosen for research purposes? Another example in comparison to stem cell research includes the controversial issue of abortion. If an embryo/fetus is considered the beginning of human life, could we not consider the destruction of them as murder? How are the individual rights of these embryos taken into account? With utilitarianism, they are not beca use the benefits of research outweigh the risks and harm of that individual cell. Is this a fair statement? Is the sacrifice of few worth the greater good of many? Response to Objection Rule – utilitarianism is a term that determines the right or wrongness by finding the best rule of conduct followed by the majority of society (Seehy, 2002). John Mill attempted to respond to the objection mentioned above by presenting a rule and stating that individual liberties should be respected. He mentions that there is room for personal commitments without having to give up everything to help others. Maximizing utility in the long run by respecting individual liberties will lead to the greatest human happiness (Sandel, 2009, pg 47). Is happiness the only thing that matters in response to the objection? In stem cell research, is the only thing that is important is the potential number of lives that will be saved? Happiness is not the only issue when evaluating utilitarianism and stem cell research. Healthcare costs of treatment plans for chronic conditions continue to increase. The potential for cures of chronic diseases from stem cell research can save millions. But why support stem cell research after stating the objection of individual rights? There has not been any research scientifically verifying human life beginning at the embryonic stage. So this research cannot be harming human life. Some individuals believe that morally stem cell research reflects the act of â€Å"playing God† and it is an act that destroys human life. To answer that statement, who is to judge that manipulation of cells is morally wrong? There is no evidence that human life is being harmed and individual rights are not being subjected to foul play. With this not only will happiness occur but the overall consequence reflects the stages it took to achieve an end. Basically, the ending is virtue. Supporters of stem cell research can see no wrongdoing in the act itself. The objection cannot really apply if human life has not been determined. Let’s look at rule-utilitarianism and apply it to stem cell research. Can we maximize utility over a longer period of time in stem cell research to make the topic acceptable? This means, is it possible to do research on limited number of cells over a period of time rather than all at once for the same ending result? Does this make the issue better and can maximum utility be achieved? Conclusion Stem cell research has been a topic of controversy for quite some time. Those who object the idea believe that there is manipulation and destruction of human life and murder is being committed. They believe that human life begins at the embryonic stage. In support of stem cell research, utilitarianism can be applied. Stem cell research seeks to achieve the greatest happiness and maximize utility by saving lives. The primary objection to this issue was the neglect of individual rights. However, if human life has not been determined, individual rights have not been compromised. In support of the greater good, stem cell research is needed in healthcare for medical advancement. References Robertson, J. (2010). Embryo Stem Cell Research: Ten Years of Controversy. Journal of Law, Medicine, and Ethics, 191-203. Sandel, M. (2009). Justice: Whats the right thing to do? New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux. Seehy, P. (2002). Doing the Right Thing (Part II): Challenges to Utilitarianism. Retrieved July 9, 2014, from The Richmond Journal of Philosophy: http://www.richmond-philosophy.net/rjp/rjp20_sheehy.php US Department of Health and Human Services. (2009, April 28). What are the unique properties of stem cells? Retrieved July 08, 2014, from Stem Cell Information: http://stemcells.nih.gov/info/basics/pages/basics2.aspx West, H. (2012). Utilitarianism. Retrieved July 4, 2014, from Encyclopedia Britannica: http://www.utilitarianism.com/utilitarianism.html

Representation of Adolescence Through Fiction

Representations of Adolescence through Fiction According to Kate Legged, an Australian Journalist, young adult novels are too dark and pessimistic, as she states in the following quote: Father bashes mother, mother abandons children†¦ Violence, drugs, suicides. The novels of some top writes of young people's fiction have never been bleaker or more explicit†¦ (Kate Legged; The Australian Magazine; 1998) ‘Tomorrow, When the War Began' by John Married and ‘Ugly by Constance Brioche both involve issues which could be considered bleak and disturbing.They tell stories of violence, one in a war situation while the other in the form of child abuse. However, young adults are represented in an optimistic light in both novels, becoming responsible and able to persist and show resilience through the circumstances they are faced with, making them able to overcome these challenges. These books promote the awareness and understanding of issues, and show that hope is what the c haracters cling to in their time of need. The main characters in both books are adolescents who develop and become stronger in their difficult situations.Constance (Clare), in ‘Ugly, writes an autobiography of her life of eating and neglect by her mother. Elli, the main character in ‘Tomorrow, When the War Began', writes a diary about guerilla warfare in an invasion where her parent's are prisoners of war. Therefore, both are put in a position of responsibility whereby they must look after themselves without parent's being there for protection. They are represented in a positive light which contrasts with their negative surroundings. ‘Ugly presents violence which is directed at Clare in the home environment.Clare suffers physical abuse (even leading to hospitalizing) and sexual harassment which re consequential of adults in the book, in particular her mother Carmen. Her treatment of my sisters was certainly very different from her treatment of me. They did not get the unkind words I got, or have their nipples pinched, and they were not beaten or punched. † (Clare; Ugly; p. 8 -9) Although Clare is unaware why she is victimized by her mother, it is possibly because she is darker skinned than the rest of the family.Carmen abuses her daughter through verbal abuse, neglect and physical harm. Her self-esteem is lowered through name calling such as the following: Lord, sweet Lord, how come she so ugly? Ugly. Ugly. If I hadn't given birth to her, sweet Lord, I would have sworn she was a fraud. Heavenly Jesus, sweet and kind, why have you given me a swine? (Carmen; Ugly; p. 52) Child abuse is intolerable in our society. As the reader sees the pain and suffering that Clare experiences, they respond to the torment by feeling sympathy towards Clare and disgust towards Carmen.So readers are positioned to admire Clare for her courageousness in persevering with life, fending for herself, her determination to become a barrister and her continual study and work ethic to achieve this goal. At the end of the book a spirited Clare visits her mother and lets her know what she thinks: You made me (Clare) hate you (Carmen), and I do. You know what? I don't think that you should ever have had children. And not that bad after all. (Clare; Ugly; p. 08) When Clare finally confronts Carmen, readers feel relief and thrilled for Clare because she has moved on from her mother's cruelty, to lead a better life and become a successful proud woman, unlike Carmen. From a horrible background, this young adult is able to achieve her lifetime goal. Unlike ‘Ugly, where personal violence is the main issue, ‘Tomorrow, When the War Began' conveys violence which is directed at the whole country in a war scenario. Elli, the protagonist, records the story of fighting the enemy for her country and family.The characters in ‘Tomorrow, When the War Began' also grow throughout the novel and become fighters for others' lives, rather than always pu tting themselves first. While ‘Ugly has one main character, ‘Tomorrow, When the War Began' features a group of seven friends, who are able to support one another throughout the war which the group discovers has broken out while they are on a camping trip. From innocence, the group is suddenly faced with a massive change in their lives: We believed we were safe. That was the big fantasy.Now we know we're not, and like you said, we'll never feel safe again, and so it's bye-bye innocence. (Elli; Tomorrow, When the War Began; p. 107) Readers can associate with these characters as they are typical Australian teenagers, which is seen through their behavior and country town in which they live. Although they are from a variety of different backgrounds, they show true Australian qualities, making them likeable to the reader as they hold the name values. The characters become more cautious and realize how important friends and family are.War has meant they are no longer innocent a nd must grow up and fend for themselves, becoming more responsible and independent with every minute, which is illustrated in this quote: We've got to stick together, that's all I know. We all drive each other crazy at times, but I don't want to end up here alone†¦ (Elli; Tomorrow, When the War Began; p. 284) These young adults (Elli, Homer, Lee, Carrie, Kevin, Robin and F') find the strength to live on while their country has been invaded ND their families captured.As with Clare, the reader is positioned to admire these characters because they show traits that most readers would can relate to and respect such as courage, commitment, independence, responsibility and family values as seen in the following quote. ‘It's our own families,' said Carrie. ‘That's what everyone's worried about, isn't it? I guess I'd fight for my country but I'm going mad wondering what's happened to my family'. (Carrie; Tomorrow, When the War Began; p. 172) One goal remains throughout which is to fight for their families and country ND their own survival.Through the representations of personal and social issues which are explored in the two books, readers are positioned to view the world as bleak and disturbing, which supports the view of young adult novels presented in Ledge's quote. However, the representations of young adults in the novels suggest that they are very capable of dealing with immense problems and overcoming them. Young adults in the novels are able to move past these issues because of their resilience and a small ray of hope in their lives, so they can continue to work towards a better life.

Analysis of Eriksons Theories on Development - 2367 Words

Key Elements of Eriksons TheoryErik Erikson believed that we develop in psychosocial stages versus psychosexual stages that Freud developed (Santrock, 2008, p.23). The word psychosocial was Eriksons term that he derived from the words psychological meaning mind and social meaning relationship (Chapman, 2007). Erikson was concerned with how personality and behavior is influenced after birth. Erikson stood strong on his belief concerning nurture and experience. The key element within Eriksons theory was ego identity. According to Erikson, the ego identity was our conscious sense of self development through all processes of social interaction (Ratti, 2008). Within Eriksons key elements were eight stages that unfold and develop as†¦show more content†¦In other countries, like the U.S., that stage may occur at a later age - maybe closer to 17 years. Nonetheless, children across the world go through these stages (Boeree, 2008). Researchers can not say the same about Freuds five stages because they were culturally biased toward young males. This basis can not be used for evaluating the general public. This brings us to another pro of Eriksons eight stages. His stages of development can be measured more accurately than other (such as Freuds) psychoanalytic theories. Eriksons stages give researchers a framework of sequences in which to establish a pattern. For instance, you know a child has to do abc before getting to xyz. That can be validated and defined if you know an infant has to crawl before he can walk and run. One of the most common examples of social context is the infancy stage (birth to 18 months) regarding trust versus mistrust (Wikia Inc., 2008). Part of Ericksons theory describes this concept being present throughout an individuals life. If this trust stage is not fully addressed, taught, and handled properly the individual will be affected negatively. 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Agriculture Reform Act - 984 Words

The 1960s pushed farming to a new low. â€Å"federal agriculture policy continued to curtail surplus production and raise farm incomes, but it placed greater emphasis on guaranteeing low food prices† (Miller, 2011). Farmers were competing with other farms just to keep their farms and homes. The government implemented additional programs like the use of food stamps and the free school lunch programs, which further deemphasized the necessity for production for the farmers. In 1996, the Federal Agricultural Improvement and Reform Act (FAIR) was passed. This sought to eliminate federal subsidies and encouraged diversification. The importance of diversification was learned during the great famine. Since there was typically only one crop planted at†¦show more content†¦Franklin D Roosevelt once said, â€Å"the history of every Nation is eventually written in the way in which it cares for its soil.† The United States began seeing sustainable management practices in farms, and healthier soil through this act. In 1982 through 2007, the United States soil erosion had declined by 43%† (Montanarella, 2015). Every year the United States loses about $400 billion dollars due to crop soil that is eroded. Soil is a limited resource and the largest resource for growing food, accommodating diverse ecosystems, and providing food resources. Therefore laws, acts, and provisions are necessary to protect this natural resource. Without policies to guarantee proper care, use reasonable access to soil, we would have further limitations to access of crops and in turn, less access to sustainable food sources. 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