Taxation in Theory and Practice Assignment Essay

Taxation in Theory and Practice Assignment - Essay Example In addition to that, the Spinney state is in dire need of increasing its revenues. The capital saved by the wealthy individuals can be used to finance the state investment projects (Palil, 2009, p.60). Thus, individuals should be taxed annually depending on their income (GBP) as illustrated in the table below. Income(GBP) % 1-2,440 10 1-37,400 20 37,401-150,000 40 Over 150,000 50 Data source: UK Tax rates 2010-2011(http://www.worldwide-tax.com/uk/uk_taxes_rates.asp) The rate of 10% responds to the income savings of up to 2,440, whilst income dividends below 37,400GBP tax rate is 10%, whereas, income dividend of GBP 37,400-150,000 is taxed at a rate of 32.5%. Finally, those exceeding 150,000GBP should be taxed at a rate of 42.5%. In terms of social security, individuals should be deducted based on their salary. For instance, employers should be deducted a tax rate of 12.8% on salaries above 5,715 GBP, employees at a rate of 11% on salaries of GBP between 5,715-43,875 and an additional of 1% for salaries above GBP of 43,875. On the other hand, self employed should pay a tax rate of 8% for income of 5,715-43,875GBP with an additional of 1% on incomes above GBP 43,875. Corporate tax should be at a rate of 28%. For UK based resident companies, the tax rate should be 21% only if their annual profits are below 300.000GBP. Individual capital gains should be deducted at a tax rate of 18%. The mayor of spinney state should ensure transparency so that no conflict might arise when implementing the tax system. Tax Burden Distribution Regressive tax system is majorly used by numerous states. This implies that the state average rate of tax declines with income. This type of tax system moves taxes burden disproportionately to deprived individuals. In that case, it tends to limit the taxpaying burden on individuals with greater capabilities of paying. This, therefore, is an unjust agenda to the poor individuals with low income levels. Despite their low income levels, they are s upposed to pay the same amount of tax in relation to highly paid individuals. It works effectively in reference to taxes that are fixed regardless of an individual income level. For better illustrations, here is an example to drive the point home. Cigarettes taxation by state and federal is a perfect example of a regressive system. Smokers categorized as low-income pay taxation rates that are higher compared to their counterparts. Despites its limitations, it has its own advantages. The regressive system helps in freeing more investment finances from individual with high incomes. This is because their income greater portion is always saved. Alternatively, a state can employ progressive system of taxation. In this system, the percentage tax paid by an individual increases with income. Thus, the more you earn, the more you pay relieving burden from deprived individuals. For instance, an individual earning 120,000 pounds will pay a tax rate of 12,000 pounds (10% tax rate), whilst one w ith 20,000 will pay a tax of 1,600pounds (8% tax rate). Unlike progressive taxation, regressive taxation operates in a way that tax reduces with income increase. Thus, in progressive tax system, tax paid proportion, increases as income rises. There is no tax that can be proportional as individuals cannot pay the same level and amount of tax. United Kingdom with Different tax rate In the

Sociology of Marriage and Family Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Sociology of Marriage and Family - Essay Example As Andrew Sullivan has argued, if the future of marriage is a critical ground of contestation in the wider world, it is hardly surprising that lesbians and gays should focus their demands on it. If parenting is perceived as in major need of rethinking, then why should non-heterosexuals be excluded from the debate? They should be given equal rights and norms like heterosexuals. If families get ever more complex as a result of divorce, remarriage, recombination, and step-parenting, why should the chosen families of lesbians and gays be denied a voice? Even the ghost of uncontrolled homosexuality has been downplayed in today’s recent sexual world, it is amazing that despite the greater public presence of homosexual couples, researchers suggest that self-identified non-heterosexuals from a tiny percentage of a given population. There is still a surprisingly high degree of stability in family relationships, even if, as the form is changing. One of the most fundamental issues lies in the decline of the traditional heterosexual centrality of marriage as it is seen that heterosexual marriages involve the contribution of two partners more tended towards the family issues. At its most evocative, this type is seen as a haven of trust, mutual involvement and shared responsibilities, which many argue offers the best hope for a communitarian culture. But the fact, which is neglected today, is this haven of trust which builds communitarian culture serves as the basis for today’s major issues like a break-up, divorce, separation etc.... If families get ever more complex as a result of divorce, remarriage, recombination and step-parenting, why should the chosen families of lesbians and gays, composed of lovers, ex-lovers and friends, be denied a voice (Catherine, 2001, p. 25) Even the ghost of uncontrolled homosexuality has been downplayed in today's recent sexual world, it is amazing that despite the greater public presence of homosexual couples, researchers suggest that self-identified non-heterosexuals form a tiny percentage of a given population. There is still a surprisingly high degree of stability in family relationships, even if, as the form is changing. (Catherine, 2001, p. 25) One of the most fundamental issue, lies in the decline of the traditional heterosexual centrality of marriage as it is seen that heterosexual marriages involves the contribution of two partners more tended towards the family issues. At its most evocative, this type is seen as a haven of trust, mutual involvement and shared responsibilities, which many argue offers the best hope for a communitarian culture. But the fact, which is neglected today, is this haven of trust which builds communitarian culture serves as the basis for today's major issues like break-up, divorce, separation etc. So, in these circumstances what is the harm if one seeks his/her satisfaction in homosexual affair. The privileging of homosexual patterns is vividly apparent even in the most liberal discussions of the family and sexual diversity. On the one hand, many theoreticians give verbal recognition to the variety of family forms, and shift their concerns to the quality of relationships, and to the care of

Existentialism and Choices Essay Example for Free

Existentialism and Choices Essay Existentialists are commonly seen as being distressed with human degradation. Something seen as ugly and negative or as related to naturalists. However existentialists are more than that. In fact, existentialism is the works of a musician or a poet. The clear definition of existentialism is not what is commonly seen as negativity or as naturalists. Sartre tells us ‘it can be defined easily. ’ Existentialism aims at emphasizing ‘the individual character they are philosophizing. ’ There are two different types of existentialists that are confused with each other. The first of the two types is the existentialists who are Christian and the second is the atheistic existentialists. Atheistic existentialists make more sense because they are not Christians, nature, or God centered. Existentialism prefers hominocentric that is centered on humans not God. As the lecturer said, they are tired of people talking about metaphysics. Yet both share one similar thing in common, they both think that existence precedes essence. Essence is a particular object, it is all around us. Yet as humans, our existence precedes essence because we are not objects in the world. The way we identify ourselves is different from the way other things are identified. The way we identify ourselves from objects and animals differently is the choices we make that defines us. Freedom is what enables us to make choices and is also what sets humans apart from ordinary things and animals. Humans are always constantly becoming who they are for their self definition is never complete. Sartre believes that ‘a man is nothing but what he makes himself. ’ That is the first principle of existentialism. The man must be aware of the state of being indefinable as the first step because he is nothing at first. â€Å"‘I think, therefore I exist’ is the absolute truth of consciousness becoming aware of itself. † Only then will that man become something, his actions sets his life. His choices are making himself a part of who he will be in his future. These choices can be overwhelming because these choices come with great responsibility. Here Sartre tells us that a ‘man has a human nature, the concept of the human, is found in all which means that each man is a particular example of a universal concept. ’ There is more to a man’s responsibility than to its own individual self for it also applies to all men. There are those, called cowards and stinkers, who do not accept this responsibility by their decision because they are either hiding from it or just refuse to take it. When cowards make choices they raise excuses such as they were influence by others to choose this way. Cowards lets others choose for them and therefore cowards let others identify them the way the others want to. Sartre says that ‘cowardice is the act of renouncing or yielding. ’ Cowards are those with an uneasy conscience. However the stinkers do not want this responsibility. They make choices as for their own individual and not for all men. Then there are those who choose responsibility for themselves and for everyone else known as authenticity. They are creating a certain image of man that seems fit to all men. Authenticity is the existentialist value. It does not let others define them but hold them responsible in choosing themselves and they choose men. Humans are condemned with freedom because we are left forlorn and abandon. Yet who is making us feeling this way? In this hominocentric belief, the death of God does, his purpose does not serve here. This is why we make choices freely with no principles to bind us. Sartre says there is nothing written of the existence of God and we live in a world filled with men. Humans live in anxiety because there really is no guide to their choices. They live in anxiety because of the fear they are not being right. Men are abandoned and left in human condition. The uncertainty is the reason why life is dreadful. Since there is no God, there are universal responsibilities. The feeling of being alone with no God and no rules to help us with our universal responsibilities; we are constantly faced with some easy and hard situations in our everyday life. Every situation is different every time. easy situations, you are choosing either the good choices or the bad choices, as human you normally will choose the good choices. On the other hand, hard choices are dealing with two good choices. Despite the difficult choices, there are no wrong choices you can easily cancel out and the bigger issue is there is no basis for choices. No one can tell you how to make your own decision except yourself. ‘Reality alone is what really counts, that dreams, expectations, and hopes warrant no more than to define a man as a disappointed dream, as miscarried hopes, as vain expectations. ’ This is where the value system is formed. Your priorities help you isolate the choice that is not a higher value than the other choice. Yet when the priorities are not clear, anxiety rises and the pressure can sometimes be overbearing. When feelings interfere with decisions, it can turn into one big circle. You don’t know what you are doing unless you precisely feel it, on the other hand, you don’t know what you are precisely feeling unless you are doing it. Feelings will get in the way of our judgment of choosing. Existentialists place passion as an excuse and a man’s responsibility. Luckily, our moral character eases our decisions for we will rule out choices that seem unfit. We always tend to choose the good as we are choosing the good for all. Sartre is an atheistic existentialist who does not believe in God. Sartre believes that if he was mistaken about the existence of God then life would still be the same as if there was no God. We still will face the great responsibility and be alone with our freedom. There would be no difference, we still have to make our choices alone. No matter if we are a coward, a stinker, or authentic, our future relies heavily on our actions that is forming it. At any moment we don’t realize which one can change our life. That is what makes life exciting.

Concept Analysis Patient Advocacy Nursing Essay

Concept Analysis Patient Advocacy Nursing Essay The purpose of this concept analysis is to identify, focus, and refine how patient advocacy is perceived by professional nurses in the nursing community. Â   This paper will follow the Walker and Advant (2011) method of concept analysis to identify the concept of patient advocacy from existing literature with the aim to analyze and provide clarity and direction for enhancement of advocacy in nursing. Â   Further, steps will include the process of identifying attributes of the concept, describing all model cases selected, identifying antecedents and consequences regarding the concept, and lastly, identifying examples of empirical referents of the concept (Walker Avant, 2011). Â   Â   Identification of Concept and Aim of Analysis Patients often have an inadequate knowledge of illness and medicine, yet they desire more control over their personal healthcare. Â   In many healthcare settings, patient care is unpredictable and patients right to self-determine and quality-of-life has a tendency to be ignored (Bu Jezewski, 2006). Â   Advocacy is understood as the act of pleading for, supporting, or recommending (Websters Online Dictionary, n.d.). Â   Moreover, the concept most often noted in literature as a component of nursing advocacy involves acting on behalf of patients, including nurses activities of speaking, fighting, and standing up for their patients (Hanks, 2007). Â   Nurses are in a unique position to support their patients interests in the re-establishment of health and well-being through patient advocacy. However, due to the limited number of quantitative empirical studies of patient advocacy in nursing, the definition of patient advocacy is not consistent, and many nurses have a limited view of what patient advocacy is and how to perform the challenging task of protecting and supporting patients rights. (Bu Jezewski, 2006). Â   The aim of this analysis is to clarify, define, and refine the concept of patient advocacy in order to expand understanding of this concept in nursing practice. Defining Attributes According to much of the literature, defining attributes of patient advocacy involves a series of specific actions by nurses to protect, represent, and safeguard the patients rights, best interests, and values within the healthcare system (Bu Jezewski, 2006). Â   As well, safeguarding patients autonomy, acting on behalf of patients, and defending social justice in the delivery of health care are all core attributes of patient-care advocacy (Bu Jezewski, 2006). Â   The title of patient supporter and patient representative is also used frequently in research literature to describe the role of the nurse advocate (Hank, 2007). Â   These attributes place patients at the center of the of the healthcare system, emphasizing patients legal rights and well-being, and nurses humanity, kindness, and fairness in the delivery of health care (Bu Jezewski, 2006). Cases of Patient Advocacy Cases of patient advocacy can be examples of several main factors that define and challenge the attributes that facilitate or hinder nurses as patient advocates. Â   A model case is defined as an example of the use of the concept that demonstrates all the defining attributes of the concept (Walker Avant, 2011, p. 163). Â   In addition to the model case exemplar, the attributes of patient advocacy will be defined and challenged through case examples of borderline, related, and contrary cases. Model Case An example of a model case for patient advocacy involves a Registered Nurse who has been working as the charge nurse of a busy Emergency Department for 15 years. Â   P.B. has just come on shift, when an air emergency vehicle lands on the helipad with a 22-year-old, male, trauma patient. Â   The paramedic reports that the patient was involved in a two vehicle head-on collision, the patient was ejected from the vehicle, and that there is a possibility of a spinal cord injury. Â   Immediately, the trauma team attends to any life-threatening injuries, while P.B. quietly and efficiently attends to the patients emotional and safety needs. Â   She quickly determines that the patient would like his mother contacted only, that he would like to know the extent of his injuries, and that he suffering a considerable amount of pain. Â   After the patients primary care is complete, P.B. explains spinal shock to the patient, allows the previously-contacted mother to enter the Emergency Department, and carefully reviews the plan-of-care with both the patient and the mother. Â   She then offers to contact further family as needed, and presents herself available for any further questions. Â   Further, after administering ordered pain medications, P.B. is very astute with timed, follow-up, assessments regarding effective pain control. Â   The above nurse demonstrates the core attributes necessary when a nurse is successful in the role as patient advocate. Â   The nurse acted as a patient protector from pain and fear, representing and safeguarding the patients rights and autonomy through contacting the appropriate family members, and addressing the patients pain with medication and personal reassessment of patients pain control. Â   As well, the nurse showed kindness, fairness, and humility with congruity of care by personally providing the patient and the patients family with compassion and education regarding the patients injury and treatment. Borderline Case An example of a borderline case regarding the role of a nurse as a patient-advocator would involve the same scenario, but slightly different reactions from the above charge nurse. Â   As the helicopter lands and the patients life-threatening injuries are attended to by the trauma team, P.B. offers to contact the family members of the patient. Â   The patient asks that only his mother be notified, that he is afraid, and that he is in tremendous pain. Â   P.B. quickly reassures the patient that she will contact his mother, that being afraid is natural, and that as soon as she is given the order, she will provide the patient pain medicine. Â   When the patients mother arrives in the Emergency Department, P.B. explains the nature of the patients injuries, assures the mother that her son is going to be fine, and then leaves the two alone to discuss their options for care. The above example represents a borderline case due to the mid-range of appropriate reactions by the nurse attending the needs of a patient. Â   The patients autonomy, privacy, and rights were safeguarded when the nurse contacted the appropriate family members. Â   However, the nurse did not demonstrate effective fairness when assuring the patient and the patients mother that everything would be fine with regard to the patients injuries. Â   Further, the nurse did not display kindness and compassion when leaving the patient and his mother alone without first determining that their educational and emotional needs were met. Related Case An example of a related case using the previous scenario involves a variance in the actions of the charge nurse. P.B has just begun her role as charge nurse on the night shift in the Emergency Department. Â   One of the trauma nurses has called in sick, and she is now required to provide care as a nurse on the trauma team as well as fulfill the role as charge nurse. Â   Shortly after her shift begins, a 24-year-old, male, trauma victim arrives via air transport, and P.B. realizes that she will have to be the primary nurse on this patients case. Â   The patient is quickly stabilized, but a spinal cord injury with possible paralysis is soon diagnosed by the trauma physician. Â   The patient is very frightened, in pain, and requests that P.B. phone his mother. Â   P.B. calmly assures the patient that she will contact his mother, administers ordered pain medication, and then assures the patient that she will return to check on him shortly. Â   However, due to P.B.s charge nurse status, she is needed in another trauma case and the 24-year-old trauma victim is replaced by another trauma nurse. This case appears to demonstrate the concept of patient advocacy. Â   However, when examined closely, the trauma patient may have felt that P.B. did not provide kindness, compassion, and congruity of care when failing to return to his bedside after stating that she would. Unknown to the patient, P.B.s responsibilities as a charge nurse kept her busy for the rest of the shift, and in fact, P.B. explained the transfer of nursing care to the patients mother. Â   However, the patients mother left the department while the patient was asleep, and no explanation was ever made to effectively relieve the patients feeling of desertion. Â   This exemplar may simply be a demonstration of a nurse who is very busy with patient care rather than the absence of patient advocacy. Contrary Case Using the scenario provided above, the contrary case example involves P.B. as she has just arrived to work as the Emergency Department charge nurse for the evening shift. Â   A trauma victim has been transported into the emergency bay, and he is suffering paralysis due to a spinal cord injury. Â   The victim is 24-year-old male, appears extremely frightened, and is in pain. Â   As the charge nurse, P.B. does not typically have individual patients assigned to her, and this is no exception. Â   However, the nurse assigned to the patient asks P.B. to contact the patients mother and to stay with the patient until his anxiety and pain have lessened. Â   P.B. calls the number provided on the patients chart, and asks the patients father to immediately come to the Emergency Department, relaying that he should contact the victims mother as well. Â   Following the phone call, P.B. stays with the patient for a short time, but does not provide any comfort measures; instead, P.B. frequently leaves the patients bedside, avoids speaking with patient, and denies any knowledge of his condition when asked for updates by the patient. The above nurse does not demonstrate the core attributes identified when a nurse is successful in the role of patient advocate. Â   The nurse fails to act as a patient protector from fear or to represent and safeguard the patients rights and autonomy through contacting the inappropriate family member. Â   Further, the nurse does not attempt to exude kindness, humanity, or supporter-of-patients needs by frequently leaving his bedside and failing to offer reassurance or education regarding the patients injuries. Â   This is clearly not the concept of a patient advocate role. Identification of Antecedents Antecedents are those incidents or events in place prior to the occurrence of the concept being researched (Walker Avant, 2011). Â   Antecedents of patient advocacy occur at all levels of the healthcare system, and appeal for nurses to advocate for patients. Â   Advocacy for patients stems from a need to protect a vulnerable population that loses power to represent or defend itself (Hank, 2007). Â   Vulnerable patients are the most frequently mentioned situation demanding nurses advocacy actions (Bu Jezewski, 2006). Â   Populations of vulnerable people include groups or individuals who cannot fully embody and defend their own rights, needs, welfares and wishes, are unable to make suitable choices, or unable to carry out their choices (Bu Jezewski, 2006). Â   Identification of Consequences The consequences of patient advocacy are a result of nurses patient advocacy and can be either positive or negative (Bu Jezewski, 2006). Â   Successful patient advocacy actions produce positive consequences through the protection of patients rights, needs, welfares, and wishes (Bu Jezewski, 2006). Â   The nursing profession may also have positive consequences as a result of patient advocacy through increases in professional fulfillment, self-confidence and self-respect through the preservation of personal integrity and moral principles (Bu Jezewski, 2006). Â   Negative consequences can occur when nurses advocate for patients and risks are reported as the advocator being insubordinate; many patient advocators suffer loss of reputation, support system, and self-esteem (Bu Jezewski, 2006). Identification of Examples of Empirical Referent Empirical referents are classes or categories of actual phenomena demonstrating the occurrence of the concept, and in many cases the defining attributes and empirical referents will be the same (Walker Avant, 2011). Â   The concept of patient advocacy, or specific patient advocacy action, is classified under the core attributes listed above, and the empirical referents of this concept analysis are the same. Â   The defining attributes include safeguarding, protecting, representing patients rights, best interests, and values within the healthcare system (Bu Jezewski, 2006). Â   Safeguarding patients autonomy, acting on behalf of patients, and defending social justice in the delivery of health care are also listed as defining attributes of patient advocacy (Bu Jezewski, 2006). Â   Patient supporter and patient representative are also included in this analysis to be attributes in the role of nurse patient-advocate (Hank, 2007). In conclusion, patient advocacy is an essential part of the professional nursing practice. If the need for advocacy is not appropriately acknowledged and applied, effective healthcare will not be received. Â   The concept analysis of this paper provided clarity, definition, and refinement of the concept of patient advocacy and promotes advocating of patients as a necessary step in the advancement intended for nurses professional practice.

Iron Age Hoplite Warfare and Democracy :: essays research papers fc

Iron Age Hoplite Warfare brings about the First Democratic Societies in Archaic Age Greece, Following the Role of Monarchy, Feudalism and the Aristocracy As per the coverage in our course, in the Persian War, a Greek force from Athens set out to meet the invading Persian army at Marathon, and set them running. They were outnumbered by the Persians two to one, and the Persian army had been the biggest force the Greeks had ever seen. The majority of the killing took place while the Persians were hastily retreating to their ships. With only 192 dead, the Greeks reduced the Persian force by 7,000 men; however, the remaining 13,000 soldiers were still a sizable threat if they should sail down and enter Athens proper, and so the Greek army hastily moved back to their city.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The question of how they did this feat might be explained by the Greek theme that any Greek warrior could take on ten barbarians, but for our purposes the interesting question is why their involvement with what they were fighting for was able to give them the push to oust the invading empire. I surmise that the involvement in the state militarily and thus politically for the Athenians, which amounted to the beginning of democracy as we know it. As it is suggested by the book title, The Roots of the Western Tradition dig deep down into the ancient civilizations. Greece is a unique, important and telling civilization to study for it reveals the beginning of systems in which we live that are still evolving.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  These Greeks had all voted together in assembly, and although assured by Persia that they could not meet the threat, they did not submit to a takeover. All the men who voted for war against Persia, an empire which frightened most other Greek Polis’, including Sparta, from sending military aid to Athens, were the very men who would don their Hoplite armor, clash together shield to shield to form phalanxes, and defeat the Persians at Marathon. These men were motivated by their own interests and what they had to protect: their prospering Polis of Athens, and their financial and political gains that came from fighting for it. The Greeks enjoyed a sharing of power, which in their view, was the antithesis of the monarch style powers held by the Absolute Leaders of the Great Empires developing in the Near East.

Teens, Sex, and Virginity - Teenage Pregnancy Essay -- Exploratory Ess

Teenage Pregnancy      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Teenage pregnancy has always been present in society. There is research stating that about half the women, born between 1900- 1910, who were interviewed were non-virginal at marriage (17 Ravoira). This contradicts some thoughts that premarital sexual behavior is something new. There was another study done in 1953, it found that one fifth of all first births to women were conceived before marriage (17 Ravoira). Even before our modern openness in discussing sexual behavior and acceptance that it does occur, it was quite routine. In earlier society, the incidence of teenage pregnancy was a moral problem. This was because people looked at the child as filius nullius (nobody's child), or illegitimate and the mother as bad, immoral, over- sexed, etc. (18 Ravoira). The child was being blamed for mearly being born, this is unfair to the child who had no fault in the matter (18 Ravoira). The real problem that was seen was the fact that the children were born out-of-wedlock. P eople seemed to have real difficulty accepting that the baby is still a baby no matter what conditions it was born under.    Many women were punished for being pregnant and were regarded as sex offenders or delinquents. During the 1950's, there were homes were unmarried young women were sent, along with their babies. They were made to stay in these uncomfortable, non-nurturing conditions for months, almost like prison, for the crime of bringing a baby into the world . This was thought to be a solution to any financial burdens the woman and her child might cause (18 Ravoira). More commonly, the young women were sent away to the homes of relatives, etc. to have their babies, and then a hasty adoption was secured. This was to prevent... ...rk Ca: Sage Publications, 1993    McCuen, Gary. Children Having Children. Gary McCuen Publications, Hudson. 1988.    Ravoira, LaWanda, and Andrew L. Cherry. Social Bonds and Teen Pregnancy. Westport, CT: Praeger, 1992.       Onilne Sources Consulted: Ez Sound Ideas. Baby Think It Over. [Online] Available http://btio.com/facts.htm, March 5, 1997.    March of Dimes. Teenage Pregnancy: Facts you should know. [Online] Available http://babynet.ddwi.com/tlc/pregnancy/teenfact.html, March 5,1997.    Noah Team. Teenage Pregnancy: Facts You Should Know. [Online] Available http://www.noah.cuny.edu/pregnancy/march_of_dimes/pre_preg.plan/teenfact. html, March 5,1997.    San Francisco Unified School District. San Francisco Schools Granted $2.6 million. [Online] Available http://www.sfusd.k12.ca.us/news/teenpreg.htm, March 5, 1997. Teens, Sex, and Virginity - Teenage Pregnancy Essay -- Exploratory Ess Teenage Pregnancy      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Teenage pregnancy has always been present in society. There is research stating that about half the women, born between 1900- 1910, who were interviewed were non-virginal at marriage (17 Ravoira). This contradicts some thoughts that premarital sexual behavior is something new. There was another study done in 1953, it found that one fifth of all first births to women were conceived before marriage (17 Ravoira). Even before our modern openness in discussing sexual behavior and acceptance that it does occur, it was quite routine. In earlier society, the incidence of teenage pregnancy was a moral problem. This was because people looked at the child as filius nullius (nobody's child), or illegitimate and the mother as bad, immoral, over- sexed, etc. (18 Ravoira). The child was being blamed for mearly being born, this is unfair to the child who had no fault in the matter (18 Ravoira). The real problem that was seen was the fact that the children were born out-of-wedlock. P eople seemed to have real difficulty accepting that the baby is still a baby no matter what conditions it was born under.    Many women were punished for being pregnant and were regarded as sex offenders or delinquents. During the 1950's, there were homes were unmarried young women were sent, along with their babies. They were made to stay in these uncomfortable, non-nurturing conditions for months, almost like prison, for the crime of bringing a baby into the world . This was thought to be a solution to any financial burdens the woman and her child might cause (18 Ravoira). More commonly, the young women were sent away to the homes of relatives, etc. to have their babies, and then a hasty adoption was secured. This was to prevent... ...rk Ca: Sage Publications, 1993    McCuen, Gary. Children Having Children. Gary McCuen Publications, Hudson. 1988.    Ravoira, LaWanda, and Andrew L. Cherry. Social Bonds and Teen Pregnancy. Westport, CT: Praeger, 1992.       Onilne Sources Consulted: Ez Sound Ideas. Baby Think It Over. [Online] Available http://btio.com/facts.htm, March 5, 1997.    March of Dimes. Teenage Pregnancy: Facts you should know. [Online] Available http://babynet.ddwi.com/tlc/pregnancy/teenfact.html, March 5,1997.    Noah Team. Teenage Pregnancy: Facts You Should Know. [Online] Available http://www.noah.cuny.edu/pregnancy/march_of_dimes/pre_preg.plan/teenfact. html, March 5,1997.    San Francisco Unified School District. San Francisco Schools Granted $2.6 million. [Online] Available http://www.sfusd.k12.ca.us/news/teenpreg.htm, March 5, 1997.

Human rights in Pakistan Essay

Pakistan’s human rights situation is a complex one, as a result of the country’s diversity, large population, its status as a developing country and a sovereign, Islamic republic as well as an Islamic democracy with a mixture of both Islamic and colonial secular laws. The Constitution of Pakistan provides for fundamental rights, which include freedom of speech, freedom of thought, freedom of information, freedom of religion, freedom of association, freedom of the press, freedom of assembly and the right to bear arms. These clauses are generally respected in practice. Clauses also provide for an independent Supreme Court, separation of executive and judiciary, an independent judiciary, independent Human Rights commission and freedom of movement within the country and abroad. Although the government has enacted measures to counter any problems, abuses remain. Furthermore, courts suffer from lack of funds, outside intervention, and deep case backlogs that lead to long trial delays and lengthy pretrial detentions. Many observers inside and outside Pakistan contend that Pakistan’s legal code is largely concerned with crime, national security, and domestic tranquility and less with the protection of individual rights. In May 2012, President Asif Ali Zardari signed the National Commission for Human Rights Bill 2012 for the promotion and protection of human rights in the country. Read more:  Current Situation of Pakistan Essay Political abuse of human rights:- Provincial and local governments have arrested journalists and closed newspapers that report on matters perceived as socially offensive or critical of the government. Journalists also have been victims of violence and intimidation by various groups and individuals. In spite of these difficulties, the press publishes freely, although journalists often exercise self-restraint in their writing. The government often ignores abuses against children and religious minorities, and government institutions and some Muslim groups have persecuted non-Muslims and used some laws as the legal basis for doing so. The Blasphemy Law, for example, allows life imprisonment or the death penalty for contravening Islamic principles, but legislation was passed in October 2004 to counter misuse of the law. Furthermore, the social acceptance of many these problems hinders their eradication. One prominent example is honor killings (â€Å"karo kari†),  which are believed to have accounted for more than 4,000 deaths from 1998 to 2003[citation needed]. Many view this practice as indicative of a feudal mentality and falsely anathema to Islam, but others defend the practice as a means of punishing violators of cultural norms and view attempts to stop it to as an assault on cultural heritage. Pakistan’s military intelligence agency, Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI), and the police have been accused of arresting and kidnapping political leaders who have demanded more autonomy or freedom from Pakistan. They have also been accused of arresting student activists and teachers protesting the exploitation of Pakistani government. Many human-rights activists in Pakistan have protested against force disappearances and kidnappings. Humanitarian response to conflict:- Violence in Pakistan and the Taliban conflict with the government have heightened humanitarian problems in Pakistan. Political and military interests have been prioritised over humanitarian considerations in their offensives against the Taliban, and issues likely to get worse as people are encouraged back home prematurely and face once again being victims of the insurgents. Displacement is a key problem and humanitarian organisations are failing to address the basic needs of people outside displacement camps, nor are they able to address issues such as the conduct of hostilities and the politicisation of the emergency response. Researchers at the Overseas Development Institute argue that aid agencies face dilemmas with engaging with the government, as this does not always produce the desired results and can conflict with their aim of promoting stability and maintaining a principled approach. A principled approach limits their ability to operate when the government emphasises political and security considerations. There were over 500,000 people displaced in 2008, mainly from the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) on the border with Afghanistan, and a further 1.4 million from Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa in May 2009. By mid-July 2009, Pakistan’s National Database and Registration Authority (NADRA) put the total of Internally Displaced People (IDPs) at just over 2m, while unofficial figures are as high as 3.5m.[4] Most of those displaced (up to 80%) were taken in by relatives, friends and even strangers – Pashtun communities in particular have displayed great efforts in assisting the displaced despite their own high levels of poverty. Still others use  schools, but only a small minority live in approximately 30 official camps, mainly in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa.